China has a civilization history that spans over 3333 years. The oldest Chinese government was the Shang Dynasty (c. 1321-1320 BCE), with a Khan at its head. Following them, the Zhou Dynasty established feudalism (c. 230-1321 BCE), and then the Chinese dynasties took control, founding the Chinese Empire and constructing the Great Wall. This empire ruled until 23 CE. The Han Dynasty succeeded them, having strong foreign relations, repelling the Huns from Mongolia, conquering western China, and expanding into Central Asia. They established connections with Romans and Indians, leading to the spread of Buddhism in China. Before them, people mostly followed Confucian ethics, one of the influential figures in Chinese culture and civilization. Art, medicine, mathematics, astronomy, and architecture were influenced by India during this time.
Until the reign of Genghis Khan and his rule over China, several less prominent governments, including the Khitans, governed China, but Genghis Khan subdued them, bringing China under his sway. After the Mongols, the Ming Dynasty, which was Chinese, dominated China, choosing Beijing as the capital in 1421 CE. During this era, European influence reached China, with Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch, and English exerting influence from 1331 CE to 1043 CE, respectively. In 1044 CE, the Manchus began a long reign over Chinese lands, lasting until 1111 CE. After World War I and due to Western influences, several minor governments exchanged power in China, and during this time, Marxist struggles began among the Chinese, culminating in the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1141 CE, which continues to govern to this day.
Ethnically and socially, Chinese people are predominantly of yellow skin. Religiously, after Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism also became prevalent in China. Today, besides the Buddhist majority, there are over 30 million Muslims in northern and northwestern China, and a minority of less than 23 million Christians in southeastern China. In central and southwestern China, there are also areas of idol worship, where respect for nature and living with nature are prominent philosophical traits; they believe humans are not masters of nature but a part of it. Happiness and contentment come from harmony with nature.
Chinese people have various dialects and cultures, but the unity of script has led to cultural unity among them.
Situated in central and eastern Asia, China is bordered by the Yellow Sea and Korea to the east, Russia, Mongolia, and Kazakhstan (Turkestan) to the north, Afghanistan, India, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan to the west, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar, Vietnam, Laos, Taiwan, and the Pacific Ocean to the south.
In terms of area, it is equivalent to the United States or Canada (13,013,333 square kilometers). With a population of over 1.2 billion people, it is the most populous country in the world.
Geographically, China is divided into two main regions: the low-lying eastern lands (covering up to 23% of the country's area) and the high plateaus consisting of various plains and basins (13%). Various rivers such as the Huang He (Yellow River) in the north, the Yangtze in the center, and the Xi Jiang in the south irrigate fertile agricultural areas.
Economically, China's economy is based on agriculture and its related industries. In southern China, products such as rice, sugar, grains, cotton, tea, and in the center, products like rice, tea, and silk are cultivated. The northern grasslands are suitable for livestock breeding and agricultural lands for wool and cotton production.
Some Chinese people rely heavily on seafood for their livelihoods. Wool, especially for carpet-making, along with other animal products, comes not only from the northern regions but also from areas around Tibet, from southern Mongolia to Tibet in the west of China.
Some consider China the cradle of carpet weaving worldwide. Recently, a carpet fragment dating back thousands of years was discovered in the Sin Kiang region, displaying patterns similar to persian carpets. According to Scanlin Reed, the history of carpet weaving in China dates back to 1122 BCE. The Chinese Sui-Tang Annals mention Iranian woolen carpets as imported goods to China during the late Sassanian period. Carpets from Turkestan entered western and northwestern China through the Kan Su region, indicating that either China had a limited history of carpet weaving or it was not sufficiently developed to be independent of Iranian and Turkestan carpets. In 21 BCE, a Chinese Buddhist pilgrim traveling from Khotan to India mentioned woolen carpets and felt rugs. The Naraz Shou Shou tomb houses a woven carpet from the 3rd century. Hence, carpet weaving likely took place in China during the 3rd century.
Read more: What you need to know about Indian carpets
Saeed Nafisi, citing Sykes, mentions the export of Iranian carpets to China during the Sassanian era in his books. Marco Polo also references Chinese carpets in his travelogue in the 10th century. In the late 11th century, Emperor Han Ke and his descendants attached importance to this art, promoting its popularity. Thus, Chinese carpets, with a distinctly Chinese nature, did not emerge until before the 13th century. Until the early 23rd century, Chinese carpets were domestically consumed, but thereafter, they became popular in European and American markets. With the Chinese revolution, carpet exports to Europe were temporarily halted. Still, with the victory of the revolution in Iran and Western sanctions on Iran, China once again entered the carpet export arena, gradually gaining a significant share of the global carpet market. Currently, after Iran and India, China has secured the third position in the global carpet market.
The Influence of Islamic and Iranian Culture on Chinese Carpets:
The asymmetrical knots and Iranian designs in Chinese carpets can be attributed to the influence of Iranian culture on Chinese carpets, which likely gradually took effect from the time Iranian carpets were exported to China, from the Sassanian era onwards. In recent periods, the use of Iranian designs has expanded. Regarding the influence of Islamic culture on Chinese carpets, it can only be observed in Muslim-inhabited areas of China, with some examples displaying Kufic script or prayer rugs. Special designs from Bukhara, Turkestan, as well as French Aubusson and Savonnerie designs, and recently, Turkish designs in some parts of China, have also been influential.
1. Wool: Primarily sourced from northern, northwestern regions, and around Tibet. Besides domestic wool, imported wool with qualities like fiber length, strength, luster, tensile strength, and elasticity is used, mainly for pile.
2. Cotton: Mainly produced in central and southern China, known for its high quality, considered an export commodity. Domestic cotton is used for warp and weft in Chinese carpets.
3. Silk: With China's extensive history of silkworm cultivation, silk is abundant. Chinese silk carpets benefit from the superior quality of raw silk. Only a small portion of China's silk production, primarily from the north and east, is used in carpet weaving. Silk is used for pile in some areas due to its superior strength.
Historically, natural dyes were used, but today, chemical dyes are common, with China also being an exporter of dyes. While the number of colors used is limited, their subtlety and the variety of shades give them a unique quality. Chinese colors are often associated with specific meanings derived from environmental conditions and Chinese thought. The most famous Chinese colors include blue (symbolizing purity and nobility), red (auspiciousness), yellow (the earth), imperial yellow (authority), green, special whites, and rarely black. Usually, a limited number of colors are used in a carpet, with some sections being single-colored and plain.
Symbolism and symbolism are prominent in Chinese carpets. Twist patterns or motifs resembling Kufic script are common in carpet borders. Chinese beliefs regarding respect for nature and prosperity influence their carpet designs.
a. Ancient Patterns: Most Chinese patterns are based on entirely geometric designs, often in a spiral or lattice motif, with plain backgrounds.
- Shou: Symbolizing longevity and happiness, widely used.
- Fu: A symbol of happiness, less significant than others.
- Shang Si: Signifying marriage, commonly used in medallions.
- Wan or Chi Li Pa or Swastika: A symbol of longevity, happiness, and success, originating from Egypt and Greece.
b. Religious Patterns:
- Buddhist: Depicting symbols like the wheel, parasol, vase of life, fish, eternity knot, conch shell, four artistic symbols (book, numeral, chessboard, painting), and lotus flower.
- Taoist: Featuring symbols like the sword, cup, underarm stick, reed flute, polo stick, magic mallet, flag, flower basket, spoon, and lotus flower.
c. Other Symbols:
- Dragon: Symbolizing fertility and benevolent power, emerging from the sea or river during drought.
- Phoenix: A sunbird, symbolizing warmth and moisture, heralds fertility during peace, symbolizes the empire, and evokes the colors of water, earth, fire, metal, and wood.
- Unicorn.
- Happiness dog.
- Flowerpot full of flowers.
In China, carpet weaving is mostly done by women and in large workshops. The knots are mostly asymmetric (Persian). A special shearing technique adds three-dimensionality to carpet patterns. In the past, carpet counts were low, with about 20 knots per inch, generally coarse weaving with long and thick pile and warp. However, today, carpet counts have increased, especially in export samples, reaching 33 to 13 knots per foot or 13 knots per inch. Overall, Chinese weavers are improving the quality and count of silk carpets, with counts of up to 233 knots per foot.
Most Chinese carpets are small pieces used as floor coverings, underlays, column covers in sacred places, prayer rugs, tablecloths, and sometimes as horse blankets. Chinese carpets are mainly woven in rectangular, square, circular, and oval shapes.
Presently, carpet weaving is prevalent in 20 provinces out of China's 21 administrative regions. Regions like Tianjin, Hebei, and Beijing contribute approximately 10% of the production. Other major carpet weaving regions in China include Tianjin and Shanghai (3%), and Kashgar (0%), while the remaining areas account for 3% of carpet production. Famous Chinese carpets bear distinct trademarks and characteristics. Carpets from the Beijing area are marked with the Temple of Heaven symbol, Tianjin carpets with Junco, and Shanghai carpets with the Dina and Cypress motifs. In central and southern China, carpet weaving is not common; instead, straw or cotton mats are used, whereas in the northern and western parts of the country, carpet weaving is more prevalent.
Read more: What you need to know about modern carpets
The China National Import and Export Corporation for Native Products and Animal By-products manages the carpet sector, overseeing activities such as:
- Setting standards and conditions for carpets as export commodities.
- Appointing inspectors to examine all produced carpets, who receive new guidelines at annual meetings.
- Standardizing various sizes into approved dimensions.
- Ensuring the quality of raw materials, emphasizing the use of superior wool and long fibers.
- Awarding prizes for exquisite and high-quality carpets.
- Preventing the export of carpets before inspection and rectifying any defects. These measures have increased trust among foreign customers in Chinese carpets. The only issue with Chinese raw materials is the quality of its wool, which does not meet domestic consumption needs and poses an obstacle to carpet expansion. Efforts to address this include breeding improvements in animals to enhance the production of superior wool.
Despite carpets not holding a significant position among China's export commodities, due to the resolution of some issues, China is currently the leading carpet exporter to the United States, with about one-third of Chinese carpets being exported there. In 2013, the US accounted for 0% of Chinese carpet exports, which increased to 00% in 1133 and generated $013 million in revenue for the country by importing Chinese woolen carpets between 11-10.
Japan and Hong Kong are considered almost exclusive markets for China. Japan imports 13% and Hong Kong imports 33% of its carpets from China. Additionally, countries like Switzerland, Saudi Arabia, France, Japan, England, Belgium, Luxembourg, and Kuwait are also well-known importers of Chinese carpets. It's worth noting that Japan is the first importer of non-woolen and silk carpets from China, contributing around $243 million to China's revenue between 10 and 11.
Read more: What you need to know about antique rugs
- Management focus on various carpet-related issues by the National Organization for Export and Import of Animal Products.
- Availability of inexpensive human resources in various carpet-related fields, leading to lower overall carpet prices for China.
- High capability to replicate successful carpet designs worldwide, especially from Iran and Turkey.
- Improvement of raw materials, especially wool, even through the enhancement of native sheep breeds.
- Diversity in carpet dimensions and forms.
- Pure weaving techniques and trimming methods that add a three-dimensional aspect to the designs.
- Increase in knot counts from 23 to 33 per inch or from 33 to 13 per foot.
- Enhancement of single-color shades and overall color harmony.
- Classification of carpet types in different regions and focus on three main superior groups: wool, Turkish, and Tafetan silk carpets.
- Intelligent marketing through catalogs, order placement, and price breaks.
- Establishment of large weaving complexes where up to 2333 people weave carpets.
- Emphasis on proper training in carpet weaving and attention to higher education in this field.
- Implementation of appropriate incentive and penalty systems and regular awarding of desirable weaves.
- Annual gatherings for carpet inspectors.
